Further, as researchers increasingly incorporate standardized outcome measures into this research, collating and pooling findings will allow researchers to compare outcomes across different populations and interventions while estimating the magnitude of effects across domains. The systematic literature review was conducted according to The Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines [21]. Cruelty in Entertainment Disaster Response Companion Animals Dogfighting Dog and Cat Welfare Dog Meat Trade Farm Animals Animal Agriculture and Climate Change Factory Farming Plant-Based Eating Wildlife Fur Human-Wildlife Coexistence Rhino and Elephant Protection Seal Slaughter Shark Finning Trophy Hunting Whaling Wildlife Trade Other Ways We Help Two studies found increased social participation 3-, 6-, and 12-months [15] as well as 7-months [33] after receiving a mobility service dog, while Donovan [28] found no change in social participation 4-months receiving a mobility service dog. This research aimed to conduct a systematic assessment of the current state of knowledge regarding the potential benefits of assistance dogs on standardized outcomes of the health and wellbeing of individuals with disabilities. Thus, this pattern may be better explained by the file drawer effect in which there is a bias towards publishing positive findings over null findings [79]. A final potential reason for outcome discrepancies is variation in methodological rigor across studies. Moderator analyses will be useful in determining the potential explanatory effects that handler-service dog relationships have on psychosocial outcomes. Because of the broad inclusion criteria, the 27 studies were widely varied in terms of human and dog participants, assessment time points, statistical analyses, and standardized outcomes. Articles were extracted for information based on three aims to describe study characteristics, assess methodological rigor, and summarize outcomes. Although outcomes from assistance dog placement for children and adolescents have been quantified with qualitative [e.g., 6971] and observational [e.g., 72] study designs, effects on standardized measures of psychosocial wellbeing including social functioning have not been explored. Other self-evaluation outcomes assessed with null findings included no differences in self-concept between control groups and those with mobility service dogs [37] or guide dogs [46], no differences in attitude towards a disability 4-months after receiving a mobility service dog [28] or among guide dog users compared to a control group [38], and no differences in flourishing among guide dog users compared to a control group [46]. The rationale for excluding studies on emotional service dogs and psychiatric service dogs is that the primary benefits of these dogs are psychological in nature, rather than physical or medical, which complicated comparisons of their psychosocial effects. BBC - Ethics - Animal ethics: Experimenting on animals Dr. However, three studies collapsed analyses across several types of assistance dogs and impairments. Other null findings included no effect of having a guide dog on social conflict stress and interactions with others [42], no improvement in social relationships 12-months after receiving a mobility service dog, and null findings regarding self-reported friendship and companionship with a mobility or medical service dog [16] or 4-months after receiving a mobility service dog [28]. The most notable weaknesses included a lack of adequate reporting in the methodological sections, which not only limits interpretation of findings but prevents reproducibility. However, due to large heterogeneity and poor reporting of effect sizes and raw data, a narrative synthesis of findings in comparison to unpublished theses and published articles was pursued instead. The final sample included 24 articles (12 peer-reviewed publications, 12 unpublished theses/dissertations) containing 27 individual studies. He is currently the chair of APAs Committee on Animal Research and Ethics. To achieve the first aim of the reviewto describe study characteristicswe extracted several features of from each study and article (Table 1). Hall et al. This pattern suggests a potential publication bias present in which disproportionately more positive findings are in the published studies than the unpublished theses [78]. Using the occupation domain of the CHART, Rintala et al. Part of the justification for why nonhuman animals are studied in psychology has to do with the fact of evolution. PLoS ONE 15(12): In methods sections, only 16/27 (59%) of studies indicated whether ethical approval for conducting human subjects research was sought and received. However, it is of note that several methodological weaknesses of the studies make it difficult to draw any definitive conclusions, including inadequate reporting and a failure to account for moderating or confounding variables. Animal studies in psychology - American Psychological Association Purdue University Libraries, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana, United States of America. Opinion: Why research using animals is important in psychology Other studies assessed outcomes from hearing dogs (7/27; 26%), guide dogs (4/27; 15%), and medical alert/response service dogs (2/27; 7%). The most commonly used measure was the Craig Handicap Assessment and Reporting Technique [CHART; 58] which assesses how people with disabilities function as active members of their communities. We found that similar to the range of study characteristics observed, there was considerable variation in the methodological rigor of included studies. The rhesus monkey connectome predicts disrupted functional networks resulting from pharmacogenetic inactivation of the amygdala. The disadvantage of animal research is that it lessens the value of life. However, these are relatively new categories of assistance dogs [2], many of which may also be self-trained [62], and it appears that emerging research on this population has centered on medical benefits [63] rather than psychosocial. They have advantages and disadvantages compared with other approaches. The three Rs. We can also ask and answer certain questions that would be difficult or impossible to do with humans. The process of animal model building, development and evaluation has rarely been addressed systematically, despite the long history of using animal models in the investigation of neuropsychiatric disorders and behavioral dysfunctions. Discuss the Strengths and Weaknesses of the Use of Animals for Methodological rigor also did not significantly correlate with year of publication (r = 0.327, p = 0.096) nor total sample size (r = 0.258, p = 0.194). Many times animals have been tested on a drug and the drug was considered not harmful. However, increasingly modern methods allow the 3R principle of reducing, refining and replacing animal experiments to be put into practice . In terms of general social functioning, 2/10 comparisons made were significant. Of the 100 null comparisons, 43 (43%) were from published papers and 57 (57%) were from unpublished theses. However, Lundqvist et al. When reporting statistical results, 78% of studies (21/27) provided estimates of variability for outcomes, including confidence intervals, standard deviations, or standard error of the mean. For example, without any animal research, effective treatments for human conditions like Alzheimers disease may very well be found, but it would certainly take decades longer to find them, and in the meantime, millions and millions of additional people would suffer. However, almost all positive findings were accompanied by a null finding using the same or similar standardized measure in a different study. Rintala et al. This variation in assessment times makes it difficult to draw definitive conclusions on conflicting findings. Answer and Explanation: Jamie Greer, To compare methodological rigor by study design, an independent t-test was used to compare mean scores across longitudinal and cross-sectional designs. PLOS is a nonprofit 501(c)(3) corporation, #C2354500, based in San Francisco, California, US. Of 1,830 records screened, 24 articles were identified (12 publications, 12 theses) containing 27 studies (15 cross-sectional, 12 longitudinal). Methods matter: A primer on permanent and reversible interference The other four studies reported no changes in participants mental health 3-months after receiving a mobility, hearing, or medical service dog [35], 4-months after receiving a mobility service dog [28], and 7-months after receiving a hearing or mobility service dog [32]. The study of nonhuman animals has actually played a huge role in psychology, and it continues to do so today. Included studies assessed psychosocial outcomes via standardized measures from assistance dogs that were trained for functional tasks related to a physical disability or medical condition (omitting psychiatric service dogs or emotional support dogs). The complete MEDLINE search strategy, which was adapted for the other databases, is shown in S1 Table. The roles of dogs to assist in improving human wellbeing continue to expand. The discussion section aims to review the findings from each aim and to provide targeted suggestions for future research. [17] found better functioning among those with a mobility service dog compared to a control group. One of the first reviews published by Modlin in 2000 [7] summarized nine published quantitative and qualitative studies on the benefits of guide dogs, hearing dogs, and mobility service dogs on their handlers (omitting unpublished theses). Interestingly, only one included study [16] assessed outcomes from participants under the age of 18. Another potential reason for the inconsistencies in findings from studies assessing the same construct is disparities across standardized measures. We found that most studies were conducted in either the United States or the United Kingdom, but there was international representation of the research in Canada, Sweden, New Zealand, and Japan. Assistance Dogs International (ADI) defines three types of assistance dogs, of which we use as terminology in this review: guide dogs who assist individuals with visual impairments, hearing dogs who assist individuals with hearing impairments, and service dogs who assist individuals with disabilities other than blindness or deafness [3]. Articles were published from 19942018 with publication dates in the 1990s (5), 2000s (9), and 2010s (10) indicating an increasing publication rate on this topic over time. The other five studies found no effect of having a mobility service dog [32], hearing dog [29, 32], or guide dog [38] on life satisfaction using SWLS. For example, organizations that place assistance dogs may have housing, familial, physical, or even financial requirements for potential recipients that should be subsequently reported in the manuscript to fully define the population. Alan M. Beck, Second, there is inherent variation in both the quality and quantity of interactions from one assistance dog-owner pair to the next. Importantly, unpublished theses had a similar average sample size as published studies, with similar power to detect effects compared to published studies. Research on non-human primates, for instance, continues to offer valuable perspectives into the causes and evolution of individual, social, and reproductive human actions. Summary of quality of life outcomes across studies ordered by sub-category. The latter offers a more cynical take on animal welfare, namely that. Similarly, Crudden et al. First, there may be ceiling effects present whereby individuals are functioning at initially healthy levels of the measured construct (e.g., depression, self-esteem) prior to receiving an assistance dog and thus may not significantly improve on these measures. Neither of these early reviews employed a formal methodological assessment of studies, but limitations were listed for each included study. In total, 147 comparisons were made across the 27 studies that examined the effect of having an assistance dog on a standardized scale or sub-scale on a psychosocial outcome: 58 (39%) psychological outcomes, 43 (29%) social outcomes, 34 (23%) quality of life outcomes, and 12 (8%) energy/vitality outcomes. Discover a faster, simpler path to publishing in a high-quality journal.