46, 287292. ), a physician who recognized physiological psychology in the treatment of illnesses and linked the physical and psychological together. The Role of the Biological Perspective in Psychology - Verywell Mind Furthermore, we must understand the kinds of questions neuroscience will never be able to answer. Linking childhood poverty and cognition: environmental mediators of non-verbal executive control in an Argentine sample. Neuroevidence such as brain scans have several strengths. (2010) have suggested that properties (i.e., magnitude, duration and chronicity), and types (e.g., social exclusion vs. physical threat) of stressors in early adverse developmental contexts modulate the impact on neural networks involved in acute and chronic responses to stress. 46, 156162. Cognitive Neuroscience - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics 139, 13421396. Brain activity is presumably the source of all these things, but how, exactly? Similarly to many areas of study on the effects of poverty on development, epigenetic analyses of early brain development in humans are in their early stages. 15, 516527. There is also the question of ecological validity: is measuring the brain activity of an individual who is instructed to do nothing for two minutes in a laboratory setting relevant to brain activity during the alleged offense? Neuroimage 49, 11441150. This is especially important since the current neuroscientific evidence on developmental patterns has contributed to our understanding of poverty as a phenomenon much more complex and dynamic than the definitions proposed by other social and human scientific disciplines. Cognitive approach - learn & understand it online doi: 10.1016/S0079-6123(02)38074-9, Neville, H., Stevens, C., Pakulak, E., and Bell, T. A. I have witnessed neuroscience repeatedly misrepresented and misused. After all, it is generally accepted, based on a vast amount of clinical evidence and basic research, that the frontal lobes play an important role in cognitive control and decision-making,20 and that individuals with defects in frontal lobe areas such as orbitofrontal cortex, the area of frontal cortex adjacent to the orbits, exhibit impaired impulse control and impaired decision-making, among other findings.21, However, let us consider a famous example from the neurolaw literature: the case of Herbert Weinstein.22 This case is considered a landmark criminal proceeding in neurolaw, as it is the first known attempt in New York to use neuroimaging to argue for insanity.23 Mr. Weinstein, an advertising executive in his mid-60s with no prior psychiatric or criminal history at the time of the incident, was accused of, and later confessed to, killing his wife by throwing her out the window of their 12th-story apartment after a heated argument.24 A structural MRI was obtained after the act, which revealed a large, left-side arachnoid cyst. Biological Approach in Psychology The aim of this section is to highlight the importance of a comprehensive approach to foster the integration of the conceptual models that have been generated in the studies of brain development and plasticity to help design a new generation of research methods and proposals in the study of childhood poverty from a neuroscientific perspective. Youth Stud. Public Interest 6, 57121. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-8624.2011.01641.x, Evans, G. W., Li, D., and Whipple, S. S. (2013). Front. Front. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2014.09.031, Holtmaat, A., and Svoboda, K. (2009). Most modern scanners have three Tesla (T) magnets that can resolve brain tissue down to 1 mm (a 1-mm3 block of brain contains approximately 20,000 neurons),57 but the most powerful MRI machine under construction will surpass them all at 11.75 T, which is expected to be able to resolve brain tissue down to 0.1 mm.58 Furthermore, magnetic particle imaging (MPI) promises to increase significantly the resolution of functional MRI by injecting magnetic nanoparticles that act as contrast agents. Dr. Choi is Assistant Professor of Psychiatry, Oregon Health and Sciences University, Portland, OR, Chair of the AAPL Forensic Psychiatry Committee, and Director, Forensic Evaluation Service, Oregon State Hospital, Salem, OR. doi: 10.1111/desc.12081, Neville, H. J., Stevens, C., Pakulak, E., Bell, T. A., Fanning, J., Klein, S., et al. When positive psychologists advocate a strengths-based approach, I hear it as an important . For instance, in experiments with infants, different tools are usually introduced to facilitate the acquisition of motor skills before the age at which these behaviors are typically observed (Smith and Thelen, 2003). 15:843. doi: 10.1038/ncomms1849, Zhu, X., Wang, F., Hu, H., Sun, X., Kilgard, M. P., Merzenich, M. M., et al. Rev. Rev. Rev. 16, 708712. In addition, most of the evidence is limited to cross-sectional or short-term longitudinal designs, which present difficulty for understanding changes in the study of brain development in adverse contexts. Dev. 8:276. doi: 10.3389/fnins.2014.00276, Bryck, R. L., and Fisher, P. A. Acad. For example, Ganzel et al. For such a purpose, it is necessary to encourage the design of interventions and the measurement of outcomes driven by theoretical models to include the consideration of underlying mechanisms at different levels of analysis. 1, 101109. Nat. Dev. She provides you with an extensive history of complaints and descriptions of functional limitations. Some of the widely accepted psychological theories are the behavioral theories, the cognitive theories, humanist theories, biological theories, psychodynamic and the social psychology theories. Genetic differences between individuals can result in widely divergent recruitment of brain areas for similar tasks. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest. Neurosci. Hum. Neurosci. Annu. Effects of socioeconomic status on brain development and how cognitive neuroscience may contribute to leveling the playing field. Psychobiol. Effects of stress throughout the lifespan on the brain, behavior and cognition. (2009). doi: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2009.07.003, Rueda, M. R., Checa, P., and Cmbita, L. M. (2012). 2d 715 (N.Y. Crim. Also, recent behavioral studies have shown that sensitive periods are not necessarily fixed in terms of timing, and suggest that closure of these periods is likely to result from the natural consequence of a given learning process (Michel and Tayler, 2005). Psychopathol. This is a fundamental problem in the field and will only improve with better study designs that include larger sample sizes.40. Neurosci. Neurotoxicants, micronutrients and social environments. Med. This analysis is time-consuming and requires methodological innovations for the exploration of molecular pathways, systems and behavioral events, and phenomena simultaneously, and throughout the different stages of development (e.g., Rao et al., 2010). 82, 1732. us. Contribution of neuroscience to the study of socioeconomic health disparities. Vulnerable Child. Beyond the amygdala, functional imaging studies have demonstrated that generally, brain areas are activated across a very large set of conditions.17 Phrenology, a pseudoscience invented and developed by its founder Joseph Gall in the 18th century, is rightly ridiculed today because of its simplistic one-to-one model that mapped mental functions (secretiveness, mirthfulness) to single points on the brain. Strengths and Weaknesses of Humanistic Theory. It is generally accepted now that brain functions are indeed localized (functional specialization18), but only to a certain extent. I discuss two fundamental problems that limit the evidentiary utility of neuroscience-based claims: the problems of reverse inference and group-to-individual inference. The Cognitive Approach | Psychology | tutor2u Findings of brain defects in individuals may raise valid and plausible claims of impairment. Some of the strengths of this theory include the focus on both the positive nature of humankind and the free will associated with change. However, later research found that the amygdala is activated in other situations as well, when viewing pictures of donuts,13 for example, but only when the subject was hungry, and photographs of seminude women and interesting and novel objects,14 such as a chrome rhinoceros. The problem of overlapping curves is the reason so few neuroimaging-based tests are used in psychiatric diagnosis. Studying the nervous system advances understanding of our basic biology and body function. Response to McGill and Busse, "When Theory Trumps Science: A Critique However, that theory has not yet been proved by brain research. Recognizing the child in child poverty. Another technique invented in his laboratory, CLARITY,55 renders the brain transparent and, coupled with fluorescent molecular dyes, has allowed us to see for the first time intact brain circuits that traverse the whole brain. (2010). These potentially variable outcomes add another level of complexity to the study of how behavior is modulated by early experiences. Psychophysiological Methods in Neuroscience | Noba In this study, these theories will be . Lipina, S. J., and Colombo, J. Natl. Sci. The other broad class of error that I frequently encounter involves faulty claims that ascribe functional impairments to localized brain defects in an individual. Sci. Neuroscience Debate - Advantages and disadvantages table in A Level and Front. Sci. 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Ct. 2455 (2012), Estimating the reproducibility of psychological science, Empirical assessment of published effect sizes and power in the recent cognitive neuroscience and psychology literature, Power failure: why small sample size undermines the reliability of neuroscience, Understanding sensitivity and specificity with the right side of the brain, The relevance of modern neuroscience to forensic psychiatry practice, Folk Psychology: The Theory of Mind Debate, Neocortex size predicts deception rate in primates, Simple, effective countermeasures to P300-based tests of detection of concealed information, Lying in the scanner: covert countermeasures disrupt deception detection by functional magnetic resonance imaging, Low back pain in relation to lumbar disc degeneration, Causal relation between brain damage and homicide: the prosecution, Indispensable forensic psychiatry and psychology, in The Evolution of Forensic Psychiatry: History, Current Developments, Future Directions, Millisecond-timescale, genetically targeted optical control of neural activity, Structural and molecular interrogation of intact biological systems, Saturated reconstruction of a volume of neocortex, What we can do and what we cannot do with fMRI, The world's most powerful MRI takes shape, Magnetic particle imaging for functional brain imaging in humans, Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development Study, A long-term collaborative study of brain development and child health in the United States, The Changing Landscape of Mental Health Crisis Response in the United States, Education about Mental Health Firearm Laws Should Be Required in Psychiatry Residency Programs, Legal, Mental Health, and Societal Considerations Related to Gender Identity and Transsexualism, by The American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law, http://grantome.com/grant/NIH/R24-MH106053-01, The Group-to-Individual Inference Problem, Integrating Neuroimaging, Psychology, and Behaviors, 2017 American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law. What are the links between maternal social status, hippocampal function and HPA axis function in children? Strengths and Weaknesses of Cognitive Research Methods Cognitive neuroscience combines the experimental strategies of cognitive psychology with various techniques to actually examine how brain function supports mental activities. Many different techniques are classified as psychophysiological. Neurosci. Let's start by highlighting that our brains have limited capacity to process information and the world provides way more than our brains can handle, which is why we need mental short cuts/habits to function. As discussed, small studies in individual laboratories can be useful for demonstrating proof of principle (brain defects in area X appear to cause impairment Y), but such studies cannot assess the strength of the causal relationship (akin to the genetic concept of penetrance). 7, 343348. Hum. The aim of this assignment is to understand Psychological Perspectives and analyse what each perspective's strengths and weaknesses are. At first glance, this assertion seems reasonable. In summary, the implementation of the technological advances into the study of how early adversity impacts brain development and plasticity, has allowed neuroscientists to improve the identification of mechanisms of mediation and, consequently, has opened new avenues for the innovation in the design of interventions aimed at fostering the development of different emotional, cognitive and social competences. U S A 102, 1493114936. Before addressing the reverse-inference error here, it is worth quickly mentioning other problems with this reasoning. doi: 10.1002/dev.20058, Miller, G. E., and Chen, E. (2013). I end by discussing what I believe are genuinely useful applications of neuroscience in the courtroom: as a hypothesis generator and as support for other types of evidence. Differential susceptibility to rearing environment depending on dopamine-related genes: new evidence and a meta-analysis. In all these approaches, the focus of the analytical efforts was on the analysis of the mechanisms mediating stress responses, which took into consideration a number of guiding principles that could contribute to the understanding of childhood poverty. Dev. doi: 10.1038/nrn2699, Hubbs-Tait, L., Nation, J. R., Krebs, N. F., and Bellinger, D. C. (2005). There are several known sources of biovariability that make individual predictions of brain impairment devilishly tricky. (2013). doi: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2013.05.021. For confirmation, we must look to other kinds of evidence. Med. For instance, Brito and Noble (2014) have proposed early linguistic environment and stress as the candidate mechanisms through which poverty influences structural (i.e., language hemisphere, hippocampus, amygdala and prefrontal cortex) and functional (i.e., language, memory, social-emotional processing, cognitive control, self-regulation) brain development, based on recent findings considering different systems and levels of organization. In addition, a recent topic of interest in neuroscience addresses mechanisms of mediation of childhood poverty on cognitive development (Hackman et al., 2010; Noble et al., 2012; Lipina et al., 2013; Neville et al., 2013a), which allows the identification of potential targets for the design of interventions. 16, 697707. Among the most cited factors affecting development are neural plasticity, epigenetics, the influence of environmental toxins, nutrition, stress regulation, poverty modulation of cognitive and emotional processing, cognitive functioning, and health of adults with a history of childhood poverty (Hackman and Farah, 2009; Lipina and Colombo, 2009; Hackman et al., 2010; Bryck and Fisher, 2012; Miller and Chen, 2013). Enhanced efficiency of the executive attention network after training in preschool children: immediate changes and effects after two months. Beyond arachnoid cysts, the inability to make individual predictions is a general problem for any claim that a localized brain defect is responsible for a functional impairment in an individual or that an impairment is caused by a particular brain defect. weaknesses attention emotion learning / memory motivation perception too oriented towards micro-level considerations can lack specificity: nature vs nurture refers to practically every aspect/variable affecting human responses. The developing brain: from theory to neuroimaging and back. First, we propose to increase the focus on the study of variables, factors and mechanisms that mediate the effects of poverty on different cognitive and emotional processes to complement the analysis of impacts. A Frye26-type prehearing was held in which the judge ruled the scans admissible. In other words, although we may be guided by science in making moral decisions, ultimately they remain ours to make. Neurosci. Thus, neuroscientific evidence generated during the last decade in the study of childhood poverty has helped to identify the early linguistic environment and the regulation of stress as two main aspects to consider in dealing with the conceptual and methodological challenges, and as future directions in the area. Because the brain is such a dynamic organ, one cannot reliably reconstruct from a neuroscan the brain's function at the time of the index event. 10, 434445. To do this, we should understand what kinds of questions neuroscience currently can and cannot answer. Modern neuropsychological tests are well characterized in terms of specificity, sensitivity, and predictive values. Dev. In the case of the neural circuits involved in complex behaviors, the closure of sensitive periods seems to depend on whether they are associated with circuits performing computations at either basic or complex levels, such as feature representation, categorization function, top-down interactions, and cross-modal reorganization (Kral, 2013). doi: 10.1038/nrn2639, Michel, G. F., and Tayler, A. N. (2005). As clinicians, we all know that pain is a complex phenomenon and that frequently an organic cause is not found. Since the mid-1990s, researchers have applied neurocognitive behavioral paradigms to compare the performance of children with disparate SES, and technological advances in neuroimaging have allowed for the analysis of neural networks (Hackman and Farah, 2009; Lipina and Colombo, 2009; Hackman et al., 2010; Raizada and Kishiyama, 2010; DAngiulli et al., 2012; Lipina and Posner, 2012; Gianaros and Hackman, 2013). 13, 6573. As others have opined,43 it may be helpful as one component of an analysis that integrates psychological and behavioral perspectives. To this respect, some of the main contributions include the diversity of molecular mechanisms in different brain areas, epigenetic interactions, the role of structural consolidation, inhibitory and excitatory balance, functional competition between inputs, regulation by experience and age, influence of motivation and cognitive control, and potential for reactivation of organizational processes in adulthood (Hensch, 2004; Holtmaat and Svoboda, 2009; Bavelier et al., 2010). (2012). 23, 3952. Thus, integration of the different forms of plasticity should be the focus for neuroscience research in the field of poverty and brain development aimed at establishing windows for intervention opportunities. Transformation of cortical and hippocampal neural circuit by environmental enrichment. Copyright 2023 by The American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law. doi: 10.1016/j.dcn.2011.09.004, Rueda, M. R., Rothbart, M. K., McCandliss, B. D., Saccamanno, L., and Posner, M. I. Dev. Why should scientists study neuroscience? - NICHD Copyright 2015 Lipina and Segretin. U S A 108, 26932698. In terms of impacts, mediating mechanisms, hypotheses and the interpretation of data obtained by applying molecular, behavioral, and neuroimaging techniques seems to focus mainly on the comparison of performance and degree of activation rather than the identification of mediating mechanisms (Hackman and Farah, 2009; Lipina and Colombo, 2009; Hackman et al., 2010; Raizada and Kishiyama, 2010; Lipina and Posner, 2012). However, Mr. Weinstein agreed to a plea deal of manslaughter, and the matter never went to trial. In all of these studies, there has been an emphasis on the behavioral levels of analysis (e.g., Goldin et al., 2014; Segretin et al., 2014), and both neuroimaging techniques and molecular and behavioral genetics have been included in some cases (Rueda et al., 2005, 2012; Bryck and Fisher, 2012; Espinet et al., 2013; Neville et al., 2013b). Overview of Neuroscience Perspective Modern science is highly based on the structural and functional study of the brain. This is not a treatise about theories of knowledge and causation or of neuroscience's challenge to the nature of free will, which have been covered elsewhere.7 Although such philosophical discussions can be fascinating, as noted by others,8 ultimately they distract us from the practical problems that plague neuroscience-based legal claims today. (2014). Inevitably, however, the curves overlap; some stroke patients will have better impulse control than some healthy controls, and some healthy subjects will have worse impulse control than some stroke patients. For instance, Essex et al. Annu. Frontiers | Strengths and weakness of neuroscientific investigations of 3, p 403). Predictors of cognitive enhancement after training in preschoolers from diverse socioeconomic backgrounds. Enter multiple addresses on separate lines or separate them with commas. Neurosci. In the basic sciences, optogenetics,53 a technology invented by psychiatrist Karl Deisseroth in 2005,54 continues to reap rich rewards. Acad. Cogn. Cognitive Approach in Psychology doi: 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.5310-13.2014, Keywords: childhood poverty, social inequality, brain plasticity, interventions, policy making, Citation: Lipina SJ and Segretin MS (2015) Strengths and weakness of neuroscientific investigations of childhood poverty: future directions. At the other extreme of the scale, advances in computing power are enabling researchers to create automated three-dimensional reconstructions of electron microscope slices of brain, albeit, in small volumes thus far, at molecular scale resolution.56, Regarding more clinically relevant imaging, the magnetic strength, and therefore resolution, of MRI machines continues to advance. The authors want to thank CONICET, CEMIC, FONCYT, and Fundacin Conectar for their support, their colleagues at the Unidad de Neurobiologa Aplicada, and Jennifer Simonds and Lesa Ellis for proofreading the manuscript and making suggestions that contributed to its enrichment. The scientific nature of the approach is one worthy of discussing as it can be both a strength and weakness, as is its reductionist nature. doi: 10.1017/s0954579410000635, Pubmed Abstract | Pubmed Full Text | CrossRef Full Text | Google Scholar, Bavelier, D., Levi, D. M., Li, R. W., Dan, Y., and Hensch, T. K. (2010). Search. Solved weakness Psychological Perspectives Comparison Key - Chegg
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